Access to credit is one of the most important needs of Asian farmers, majority of who are small and marginal producers with little capital. Because of their lack of collaterals and low educational attainment, most have only very limited access to institutional credit. This means they are unable to buy vital farm inputs such as fertilizers, agricultural chemicals and farm machinery that are necessary for them to apply modem agricultural technology, and thereby reap the benefit of higher productivity in their yields, among others.

On top of this, many of the agricultural credit schemes that exist are inefficient. For instance, they fail to encourage the mobilization of savings, farmers have limited accessibility to them, and they are financially not viable because of poor loan repayment performance. Efforts are continuously being made to improve them through the establishment of a more supportive policy environment, the development of better financial infrastructure, and the designing of more innovative market-oriented credit schemes.

The APO has always attached great importance to agricultural credit as a key factor in improving agricultural productivity and in facilitating economic growth in the rural areas. In 1998, a regional survey on recent developments in institutional farm credit was undertaken. A follow-up symposium was held in Japan in September 1999 to study the findings of the survey and to find ways to further enhance the effectiveness of the agricultural farm credit programs.

This publication is a report on the proceedings of the symposium. It also a compilation of the papers presented at the meeting. It is my hope that it will make a positive contribution to the further development and improvement of agricultural credit in Asia and the Pacific.

The APO has recognized for some time the growing importance of introducing sound supply chain management to enterprises. This is especially so in the light of concomitant concerns about the need to remain flexible and competitive in a rapidly global sing market, consistently characterized by greater unpredictability, shorter product life cycles and stronger expectations of fast time to market. Such concerns continue to dominate the challenge set of the Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)

Based on this thinking, the APO launched a symposium from December 11 to 14 in Taipei, Republic of China for member country SME representations to present their national cases on supply chain management in relation to their indigenous SMEs. The contributions covered a mixture of conceptual models and practical applications at both the enterprise and sectoral levels. Special attention was given to the barriers and challenges of implementing supply chain management for SMEs for overall value-chain productivity improvement.

This volume is thus a compilation of worthy contributions to, and numerous spirited discussions within the symposium. We trust that the this publication, essentially of case studies arising from the symposium, can serve to illuminate the interested reader involved in either SMEs activities or holding managerial responsibilities related to productivity and value chain management. Further, it can be employed as a useful reference tool to point the same reader to some performance improvement areas and concerns for SMEs in the domain of supply chain management and its related technologies.

Some years back, the Asian Productivity Organization (APO) realized that the knowledge-based economy would gather momentum and become a reality. We therefore made it one of the key areas for the attention of national productivity organizations.

The knowledge-based economy is characterized by change and a turbulent business environment. Productivity and competitiveness now depend on nations being ready for the knowledge-based economy. Advances in telecommunications, information technology, and the Internet have transformed the global business environment. The bases of economic life and business have been extended to the realm of knowledge. Knowledge assets, knowledge workers, and knowledge ventures have become the foci of attention. This new environment brings new challenges to entrepreneurship both at the individual (new start-up) and corporate (internal corporate venture) levels. The e-business environment, as it is referred to, creates opportunities for new business models, new ways to create value, and access to new markets on a global stage. Knowledge has become one of the most important forms of intellectual capital in starting and running a business today. R&D and innovation will naturally become the primary focus of an enterprise in the process of value creation.

This present volume is a compilation of the papers and views presented at the symposium. The APO greatly appreciates the efforts of Professor Tan in editing this volume. We hope that it will aid policy-makers, entrepreneurs, and enterprises in identifying ways to move from capital-based industry to industry that is based on knowledge in the new globalized arena.

Forestry resources are essential to the economic and social well-being of people. Forests clean the air, moderate the cli­mate, protect soil from erosion and keep water clean. They also provide lumber, fuel and food, as well as raw materials for paper, medicines and many other products. Over the past many years, however, depletion of forests has been occurring at an alarming rate in developing countries in Asia. Deforestation and forest degradation has become a major concern in many countries. In fact, it has also now become a global concern.

Over a long period of time, humans have reduced forest areas from some 50 percent of the earth I s land surface to about 20 percent.       This forest depletion has resulted in environmental damage, severe soil erosion, flooding, and silting of rivers, reservoirs and canals. In order to examine these issues further and to identify some measures for improvements, the APO conducted a regional survey on forestry resources management in 1988 in member coun­tries. The results of the survey were reported at a follow-up symposium on the same subject held in 1989 in Japan. In addition, specific topics were deliberated upon such as social forestry and rural development and the role of financial institutions in for­estry. This present volume contains the proceedings of the sympo­sium, including the regional and country reports and other re­source papers presented. It is hoped that member countries and other interested entities will find it a useful reference material for further improving the management of forestry resources in Asia.

Proper utilization of land is essential to sustainable agricultural production and economic development. In many APO member countries, however, land and other natural resources are under increasingly intense pressure for development. Industrialization and urbanization due to rapid population growth and efforts to reduce poverty threaten the land and water resources of many countries. Since most Asian countries cannot conveniently expand their cultivated areas, policy makers are seeking ways to intensify production and raise farmers’ income on existing land. Heavy investments are being made to improve irrigation systems and to diversify and enhance the level of productivity. Land utilization systems are being developed to optimize land and water resource use. Land-use planning, however, must be based on reliable data and the application of scientific knowledge to conserve land resources and improve agricultural productivity.

To review the current status of land utilization systems in member countries and to identify issues and strategies for improving the contribution of land utilization systems to the enhancement of agricultural productivity, the APO organized a seminar on this subject which was hosted by the Islamic Republic of Iran in November 2000. This volume contains papers and proceedings of the seminar. We hope that it will prove useful to all those interested in land utilization systems and agricultural productivity relationships.

Agriculture in Asia and the Pacific has grown significantly over the past three decades due in large part to modem agricultural technology introduced in the early 1960s, as well as to improved policy-making and increased investments in the sector. Developments in recent years, however, have given rise to new challenges that need to be met if agriculture in the region is to make further progress. These challenges include, among others, the increasing liberalization of agricultural trade, changes in demand for agricultural commodities, and the lingering effects of the Asian financial crisis of 1997-98. To address these challenges, governments are undertaking urgent measures to improve farm productivity, diversify farming activities, and allocate more resources to agriculture. Such measures would hopefully help small farmers overcome the adversities brought about by the economic changes.

The APO undertook a survey in member countries in 1997 to assess the impact of the changing economy on small farmers, and to identify the consequent problems and constraints. The results of the survey were discussed at a follow-up symposium held in Japan on 9-15 September 1998. This publication is a report of the proceedings of the symposium, and a compilation of the papers presented. It is my hope that it will provide a useful reference text for planners and policy-makers responsible for small farmers' development in member countries.

The most significant phenomenon in the economic development of Asia and the Pacific region since the mid-1980s has been the rapid rise in intra-regional foreign direct investment (FDI). Today, the major source of foreign direct investment in this part of the region are no longer from developed countries except

Japan whose relative shares of FDI in most Asian economies have in fact been on a decline. Japan has been keeping the same level of FDI particularly after the Plaza Accord in 1985. Another noticeable change that has emerged is the increasing flow of capital and technology since the mid-1980s as major foreign investors from the Asian newly industrializing economies (NIEs) namely, Hong Kong, Singapore, the Republic of Korea, and the Republic of China. The FDI undertaken by NIEs particularly in the ASEAN region has now well surpassed that of Japan.

In the light of the increasing role of NIE firms in FDI and technology transfer in the region which have not been extensively studied and documented, the APO organized a Symposium on Intra-Regional Investment and Technology Transfer in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in July 1993. The present publication is a compilation of papers presented at the symposium by resource persons and its summary report. Taking this opportunity, we like to record our sincere thanks not only to all resource persons of the symposium but also, among all, to Prof. Edward K. Y. Chen of Hong Kong University for his leading role in the meeting.

Managerial productivity, in APO parlance, is recognized as a dynamic concept, not a mere ratio of output to input. Over the last 30 years of its operation in the Asian and Pacific region, the APO has witnessed the emergence of the productivity concept. In its initial years, the APO focus was on shop floor productivity to reflect the interests of member countries. This was followed by an accent on management, technology, environment, and, most importantly, human aspects of productivity. The APO's past research reports have explored subjects like "the quest for human dynamism," "the technology-human hybrid," and "information technology-led development." The current trend is toward a holistic or integrated approach to productivity growth.

Productivity growth arises from change and success is based on effective management of change. The current age is one of turbulence. The rapid pace of technological change, growing importance of software, globalization of markets, and shifts in social values will necessarily influence the concept and the management of productivity. Current methodologies like small group activities or enhancement of material productivity will not be sufficient to cope with such changes. The critical element for success in coming years is organizational dynamism. In creating and promoting this, management has a vital role to play. In essence, organizations must develop the ability to innovate as part of the strategy for dealing with environmental change and challenges.

Aware of these emerging trends in management dynamism in the region, the APO undertook a two­ year study on managerial productivity in the hope of developing a tool for diagnostic analysis of strategic aspects of management dynamism within an organization, the technology development process, and human resource management. The survey report, prepared by Chief Expert Professor lkujiro Nonaka of Hitotsubashi University, was discussed at a subsequent symposium to draw up basic guidelines for the analysis of managerial productivjty. The five national experts who participated in the survey and nine experts from nonsurvey countries attended that symposium.

The present volume is the outcome of those two projects. The contents of this publication will be of interest to many since it covers a subject area that is still in the early stage of study.

The phenomenal economic growth in Asia and the Pacific in recent decades has resulted in significant improvements in living conditions in the region, as reflected in people expanded choices of the food they eat. Lifestyle changes have also occurred due to other factors, including increased interest in better health. All of these developments have contributed to major shifts in food consumption patterns, and more people are expressing a preference for healthier foods. In this context, legumes are playing an increasingly important role as people rediscover their high nutritive value and health-enhancing features.

Soybeans, for example, are the most common legume and are now being hailed as the miracle food of the future. Recent claims about their anti carcinogenic effects are stirring global interest in the commodity. Several processing and packing technologies are now being developed to maximize the potential of soybeans. Soy-based food initiatives are being pursued to address nutritional issues such as the development of low-cost, soy-fortified or-blended food, promotion of soy milk in school lunch programs, and fortification of soy sauce with iron.

The potential of legumes for meeting food requirements is great. However, in addition to developing the technologies for manufacturing legume-based products that are acceptable to consumers, there is also a need to undertake innovative marketing efforts and to educate the public about their benefits. To discuss the present situation of legume processing and utilization in member countries and to identify measures to add more value-adding processes to legume products, the Asian Productivity Organization (APO) organized a Seminar on Processing and Utilization of Legumes from 9 to 14 October 2000 in Japan. This publication is a compilation of the papers and proceedings of the seminar. I hope that it will serve as a useful reference on the subject in APO member countries.

Pests are often a major cause of both pre- and postharvest losses in crop husbandry. Since the Green Revolution in the 1960s, the use of chemical pesticides to protect crops and crop produce in storage has increased tremendously due to their effectiveness in increasing yields and farm incomes as well as reasonable cost and convenience in handling. However, despite the availability and substantial increase in the use of chemical pesticides, losses due to crop pests continue. In addition, the use of chemical pesticides has caused various health hazards. This situation demands a reconciliation of the objectives of increased agricultural production with those of environmental safety.

Integrated pest management (IPM) appears to be a viable alternative as it minimizes the use of chemical pesticides through a judicious combination of chemical and nonchemical (biopesticides, predators, plant resistance, etc.) pest control methods. The IPM has already shown promising results. However, it is essential to expand the database on the production, distribution, and application of pesticides. Against this background, the Asian Productivity Organization (APO) and Food and Fertilizer Technology Center (FFTC) jointly organized the Symposium on Production and Utilization of Pesticides from 9 to 15 December 1998 in Japan. The objective of the symposium was to formulate effective strategies to minimize the use of pesticides in APO member countries based on the results obtained through a survey on the same subject conducted in 1997. This volume is a compilation of papers presented at the symposium. I hope that this publication will be useful for those involved in the production and utilization of pesticides and pest management.

The APO has recognized for some time the expanding role of the service sector within the economies of its member countries. Concerns about the need to remain flexible and competitive in a global market characterized by rapid shifts in customer requirements have been manifest in symposia on topics relevant to the sector. These have included reviews of customer satisfaction in the service sector and an overview of both the current status and development opportunities within the information industry.

As predicted, the service sector has continued to grow in importance, stature and job creation potential. Now, as service provision consumes more and more resources and management attention, the extent to which performance is responding to our interventions becomes the question that inevitably arises. In other words, as the service sector replaces manufacturing as the dominant contributor to member countries’ economies, is productivity – at both the macro and firm levels – demonstrably increasing and continuing to drive economic and social growth? Answering this question is the role of productivity measurement.

Given the profile of service sector (and, particularly, knowledge) workers and the strategic and intangible nature of service sector industries, successful measurement approaches are likely to differ from those conventionally in use in other sectors. The situation calls for more creative and flexible endeavors, measurement systems and measures that reflect the very nature of the sector itself. From 1 to 4 August 2000 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, the APO organized a symposium on productivity measurement in the service sector. Contributions covered a mixture of theoretical models and practical applications at both enterprise and sector level. Special attention was given to the need to apply measurement strategically and with sensitivity to the values and perspectives of all stakeholders. Furthermore, productivity was interpreted in the broadest sense so as to be sure to capture the essence of service work.

This volume is a compilation of contributions to, and discussions within, the symposium. We trust that the publication will be useful to both measurement practitioners at all levels and to those who have managerial responsibility for improving the performance of their organizations.

The idea of paying special attention to the measurement of productivity was discussed and its pursuit approved at the 13th Session of the APO Governing Body in 1971. An expert group, with Dr. Solomon Fabricant, Dr. Angus Maddison and Prof. Kazushi Ohkawa, convened by the APO in 1972, recommended a step-by-step approach, beginning with the measurement of labor productivity in simple and then more complex ways, going on to measure capital productivity and then total factor productivi­ty. Subsequently, early in 1973, another expert group in collaboration with the East-West Center, Hawaii, concentrate on the particular problems of productivity in agriculture. In June 1973, the First Workshop on Productivity Measurement was organized in Singapore towards developing a methodology for productivity measurement.

The report of the expert group referred to above, and the expert papers presented at the First Workshop, have been published under the title "Workshop on Productivity Measurement (Papers)". Papers presented at the 1973 meeting on agricultural productivity have been published under the title of "Agricultural Growth in Japan, Taiwan, Korea and the Philippines."

As a follow-up to the above activities, the APO organized the Second Workshop on Productivity Measurement in Pattaya, Thailand, in December 1975, and the Symposium on Productivity Measure­ment in Singapore in January 1979. Expert papers presented at these two meetings are published under the title of "Productivity Measurement: Theory and Practice in Asia".

At the Second Workshop, participating countries presented country exercises on productivity measurement, using a tentative methodology of measurement developed subsequent to the First Work­shop. These papers were later commented upon by Dr. Kazukiyo Kurosawa of the Tokyo Institute of Technology. Based on these comments, these papers were revised and updated for the 1979 Symposium on Productivity Measurement. The tentative methodology used has been revised and published under the title "Guidelines for Productivity Measurement and Analysis for APO Member Countries".

The present publication is a compilation of selected country exercises presented at the 1979 Symposium. As these papers are the result of exercises in learning by doing, the nomenclature of "Country Exercises" has been used instead of "Country Papers". It is hoped that the present publication will be of interest to all those concerned with productivity measurement, particularly in the Asian region.

The Asian Productivity Organization conducted a Symposium on Productivity Improvement in Infrastructure from 30th November to 4th December 1992, in New Delhi, India. The objective was to identify the main problems and constraints encountered by a group of member countries in the development of infrastructure with special reference to the power sector, and to suggest general directions on the development of power facilities for policy makers. This publication is based on the proceedings of the symposium.

Resource persons from Japan focused on issues relating to infrastructure planning in conjunction with economic development, and corporate strategies of improving productivity and quality in power generation. 'Presentations by local experts and participants covered a wide spectrum of issues including the development of appropriate technology, approaches for demand-side management and privatization, and privatization schemes such as Build-Operate- Transfer (BOT) and Build- Transfer ­Operate (BTO).

With the help of Mr. S. N. Nandi, the chief of the faculty, the symposium arrived at conclusions that could be of reference in policy-making and strategic decisions on improving productivity in infrastructure in general, and the power sector in particular.

I hope that this volume will be of interest and benefit to policy makers of member countries who are faced with the challenge of developing strategies for productivity improvement in infrastructure, particularly the power sector.

There are increasing numbers of women entering the labor market for employment over the world. Women nowadays constitute some 41 percent of the world's labor force and predominate in the service sector. Yet, it is disheartening to note that they continue to suffer gender discrimination in the labor market. A great majority of women in the service sector are concentrated in low paid, low status, low skilled and non-standard or atypical jobs. Therefore, it has become increasingly necessary and important to upgrade their status and motivate them for higher productivity through more creative and productive work for the development of national economy as a whole.

Recognizing the significance of the role of women, particularly in the service sector, the APO organized a Symposium on the Role of Women in the Services Sector on 16-19 October 2000 in Nadi, Fiji. This publication is a compilation of the selected papers presented at the Symposium. We hope that this publication will offer a useful guidance and insights to all those who are involved in promotion of productivity as well as status of women workers, particularly in the service sector.

The issue of social responsibility, or the social aspects of managerial function of enterprises, has been gaining growing awareness both within and outside of business undertakings. Changes in social, economic and cultural environment arising from industrial development lead to changing social demands and values, and managers of business organizations will need to bear in mind, in addition to the benefit of the enterprises, the expectations of society in terms of improved quality of life, better and cheaper products and services, improved employment opportunities, and wel­fare for the community in general.

It is in response to these changing circumstances that the Asian productivity Organization (APO) organized a five-day sympo­sium on Social Responsibility in New Delhi, India, from 6th to 10th December 1982, in collaboration with the National productivity Council (NPC), India, to provide a forum for member countries to discuss the role of business enterprises in the context of social elements of managerial responsibility.

Both internal and external considerations of social responsi­bility were discussed at the symposium. The former were concerned with employers and employees of enterprises, including the sharing of productivity gains and workers' participation; the latter in­cluded the assurance of quality and safety standards for the benefit of consumers, community development and other areas of social responsibility. The conclusions of the symposium, together with the various presentations by resource persons and participants from member countries, are compiled in this publication. As the symposium was the first 'time for the APO to address the important issue of social responsibility, this publication is an important contribution to the literature on this subject.

The APO hopes that this publication will be of interest and practical value to those who are seeking constructive and positive responses to the changing needs and values of employees, consumers and the public in general. At the same time, it is hoped that MO's endeavor in this field will lead to more awareness and action throughout its member countries.

Along with an increasing number of personal computers in use and a rapidly expanding computer network, databases are being employed as important tools for storing and processing information. This trend is likely to create a significant impact on organizations including changing the conventional way of doing business. Recognizing the importance of databases, the APO organized a symposium on the status of electronic databases in Asian countries and the opportunities they present. The meeting was held in Hong Kong from 25th to 28th October, 1994 and attended by 15 people from 11 countries. The discussions focused on the availability of databases in the APO member countries and the future tasks ahead in developing and improving databases. This volume contains the papers presented at the symposium as well as recommendations and findings. The APO hopes that this publication will be of help to those who are interested in developing databases in the region.